No man ever steps in the same river twice, for it's not the same river and he's not the same man.

-Heraclitus

When many of us older folk were going through school, the subject of philosophy had a profound romance to it. Philosophy was a byword for a life of the mind, and it suggested the adventure of a lifetime, an ongoing quest for the deepest treasures of human experience. Importantly, it wasn’t for everybody: the pursuits of philosophy were (it seemed to me) purpose-made for a select cadre of rare minds, those who could engage in the deep and often abstract mental gymnastics required to think it all through. Philosophy was more than just some ideas some old guys had back in the day, it conjured an image for me of intellectual pugilism, combined with a powerful hankering for wisdom: truth, beauty, and the good. That was the key part – the great ideas often had to be wrestled back down to earth and instantiated in one’s life. That was the real beginning of wisdom: it wasn’t merely erudite or academic mumbo-jumbo: it was the wager of a life! That was the province of philosophy to me, and I have many great teachers to thank for planting the idea so powerfully. And what incredible figures populated the philosophical landscape!

Immanuel Kant, Arthur Schopenhauer, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Friedrich Nietzsche, Hannah Arendt (many of them spoke German as a first language, you may have surmised). But we also have the French – René Descartes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and the British, too – J.S. Mill, Adam Smith, John Locke, David Hume. The. List. Goes. On. 

Let’s not forget the philosophical novelists, as innumerable as the stars, and many of them incidentally also German-language authors, such as Geothe, Thomas Mann, Robert Musil, and my personal favorite (from the German tradition), Hermann Hesse. There were countless others, naturally, from all language traditions, and it spoke to the great adventure we’d take together, if asynchronously, the Call of the Adventure to Wisdom.

So what is philosophy?

Philosophy as we understand it today in the west (which is not a geographical term, but a set of institutions including rule of law, which span the globe) continues from the Greek tradition set down in classical antiquity. Etymologically, philosophy means the love of wisdom. 

Before we begin engaging in the long arc of western philosophy (and we'll also richly immerse ourselves in the history of eastern philosophy, and how the two major traditions intersect), it's useful perhaps to imagine ourselves back in time several millennia to an idyllic, and perhaps legendary, period before there was an enormous intellectual infrastructure already in place. The Academy, after all, has a starting point in time.

It was created by Plato in 387 BCE.

In this hypothetical context, before the creation of the Academy, there would still have been intellectual tropes, there would certainly have been a wealth of stories; we know for certain there was Homer, we know there was a rich mythological tradition that blended natural inquiry with a set of beliefs about the world. We know, too, that there were notable pre-Socratic philosophers, such as Parmenides and Democritus, who sought to understand the underlying principles and elements of the universe, proposing theories such as the concept of a single, underlying substance or the idea of constant change as the fundamental nature of reality. These thinkers set the framework into which Socrates, then Plato, and then Aristotle arrived and developed certain categories in the western intellectual tradition which persevere to this day.

If we allow ourselves, usefully, I hope to imagine back to this hypthothetically indeterminate intellectual age, there would have been no set, fractionated and taxonomized differences between the pursuit of wisdom, the rigors of philosophy, or what we'd come to call (much later) science.  If we can imagine a world without intellectual baggage, perhaps we can catch a glimpse of the early days of what philosophy might have meant, and what humankind initially cherished about this pursuit. It would have been a matter of survival, determining what was true, lasting, and enduring, but it would have been not merely a matter of life or death; it had to do with the quality of the life being lived, and the quality of the deaths they died.

Socrates shifted the focus of philosophy from the study of nature to the examination of human ethics and morality. He emphasized the importance of critical thinking, self-examination, and the pursuit of truth through dialogue and questioning. Plato, who was a student of Socrates, founded the Academy in Athens in part to develop his metaphysical and epistemological theories, including the concept of ideal forms, the theory of knowledge as recollection. Plato's "Allegory of the Cave" is another enduring and provocative anecdote in the history of human thought. Aristotle, who was in turn Plato's student, emphasized empirical observation, logic, and the concept of virtue ethics.

Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day; teach a man to fish and you feed him for a lifetime.

-Maimonides

During the Middle Ages, western philosophy was heavily influenced by Christian theology, as philosophers sought to reconcile the teachings of the Church with the philosophical ideas of the ancient Greeks. Figures such as Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas sought to synthesize Christian doctrines with the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, developing theories on topics such as the nature of God, the problem of evil, and the relationship between faith and reason.

The Renaissance period saw a revival of interest in humanism and the rediscovery of classical Greek and Roman texts, leading to a shift towards secular and human-centered philosophy. Renowned philosophers such as Niccolò Machiavelli, Michel de Montaigne, and Francis Bacon explored ideas about politics, ethics, and knowledge, advocating for the primacy of reason and human autonomy.

The discipline of desire is the background of character.

-John Locke

The Enlightenment, a philosophical and intellectual movement that emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries, marked a significant shift in Western philosophy towards reason, science, and individualism. Influential philosophers of this period, such as René Descartes, John Locke, and Immanuel Kant, developed theories on epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and political philosophy that continue to shape modern Western thought.

Descartes famously declared "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am), emphasizing the primacy of human reason as the foundation of knowledge. Locke proposed the idea of the "tabula rasa," the notion that the human mind is a blank slate at birth, and all knowledge is acquired through sensory experience. Kant, on the other hand, sought to reconcile rationalism and empiricism, developing his philosophy of transcendental idealism that explored the limits of human reason and the nature of reality.

“The truth knocks on the door and you say,‘ Go away, I’m looking for the truth,′ and so it goes away.”

-Robert M. Pirsig, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance

The 19th and 20th centuries saw the emergence of various philosophical movements that challenged traditional Western philosophical ideas and expanded the scope of philosophical inquiry. Friedrich Nietzsche, known for his proto-existentialist ideas, critiqued traditional morality, religion, even the concept of truth, itself advocating for the individual's pursuit of self-actualization (Übermensch) and the rejection of societal norms. In this sense, for Nietzsche, art became mankind's central calling. 

Eastern Philosophy

Eastern philosophy, rooted in the rich cultural and intellectual traditions of Asia, has a long and diverse history that spans across different regions, religions, and philosophical systems. From deep antiquity unto the modern era, eastern philosophy has contributed to profound insights and perspectives on the nature of reality, the human condition, ethics, and spirituality.

The history of eastern philosophy begins in ancient India, with the emergence of philosophical ideas found in the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism. The Vedas contain philosophical hymns, rituals, and metaphysical concepts that explore the nature of existence, the self, and the ultimate reality known as Brahman. One of the early philosophical schools in India was Nyaya, which developed a system of logic and epistemology to understand the nature of knowledge and reality.

Another significant school of Indian philosophy, which has broken off into many tributaries and points of intersection with western culture, is Yoga, which emphasizes spiritual practices and meditation as a means to attain self-realization and liberation from suffering. The Bhagavad Gita, a seminal text of Hindu philosophy, expounds on the concept of dharma, karma, and the path to self-realization through action, knowledge, and devotion.

Buddhism, founded by Gautama Buddha in the 5th century BCE, originated in India and later spread across Asia, becoming one of the most influential philosophical systems in Eastern philosophy. Buddhist philosophy centers on the Four Noble Truths, which address the nature of suffering, its causes, and the path to liberation from suffering known as the Eightfold Path. Buddhist philosophy emphasizes mindfulness, meditation, and the cultivation of ethical conduct, wisdom, and compassion as the means to achieve enlightenment and liberation from the cycle of birth and death.

Chinese philosophy has a long and diverse history, with Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism as its major traditions. Confucianism, founded by Confucius in the 5th century BCE, focuses on social ethics, moral values, and the importance of family and social harmony. Confucius emphasized the cultivation of virtue, filial piety, and the development of moral character as the means to achieve a just and harmonious society.

Taoism, attributed to the legendary figure Laozi, emphasizes the concept of the Tao, which represents the natural way or the underlying principle of the universe. Taoist philosophy advocates for spontaneity, non-action, and living in harmony with nature, embracing simplicity, and cultivating the inner self.

If you are unable to find the truth right where you are, where else do you expect to find it?

-Dogen

Japanese philosophy has been influenced by both Chinese and Indian philosophical traditions, as well as its own unique cultural heritage. Zen Buddhism, also known as Chan in China, is a significant philosophical and spiritual tradition in Japan that emphasizes the direct experience of reality through meditation, mindfulness, and non-conceptual awareness. Zen philosophy emphasizes the direct transmission of enlightenment beyond words and concepts, and the importance of mindfulness in everyday actions and practices.

In the modern era, eastern philosophy continues to evolve and adapt to the changing cultural and intellectual landscape. Contemporary Eastern philosophers, such as Jiddu Krishnamurti, Nishida Kitaro, and Aurobindo Ghose, have made significant contributions in areas such as metaphysics, ethics, and spirituality. These philosophers have explored themes such as the nature of consciousness, the interconnectedness of all things, and the integration of Eastern and western philosophical ideas.